Academic Writing Style Guide
Used by draft_writer_agent and peer_reviewer_agent.
Core Principles
1. Precision
- Use the most specific term available
- Define technical terms on first use
- Avoid ambiguous pronouns ("this," "it") without clear antecedents
2. Conciseness
- Eliminate filler words and redundant phrases
- One idea per sentence (or clearly connected ideas)
- Prefer short sentences for complex ideas
3. Objectivity
- Base claims on evidence, not opinion
- Use hedging for uncertain claims
- Acknowledge limitations and alternative interpretations
4. Formality
- Use full forms ("do not" over "don't")
- Use formal academic vocabulary; reserve colloquialisms and slang for informal writing
- Use third person unless discipline conventions allow first person
Register Adjustment by Discipline
Sciences (Natural, Applied)
Register: Formal, impersonal, method-focused
Voice: Passive voice common ("was measured," "were analyzed")
Terminology: Precise measurements, SI units, statistical notation
Example: "The sample was heated to 350°C for 2 hours, yielding a conversion rate of 87.3% (SD = 2.1)."Social Sciences
Register: Formal, theory-informed, participant-aware
Voice: Active voice encouraged, first person for researcher decisions
Terminology: Theoretical constructs, operationalized variables
Example: "We employed semi-structured interviews to explore how participants understood institutional change (N = 24)."Humanities
Register: Formal, argument-driven, interpretive
Voice: First person acceptable for arguments, active voice
Terminology: Close reading vocabulary, theoretical language
Example: "I argue that the text's spatial metaphors reveal an underlying anxiety about institutional permanence."Engineering / CS
Register: Formal, problem-solution oriented, specification-precise
Voice: Passive common for methods, active for contributions
Terminology: Technical specifications, performance metrics
Example: "The proposed algorithm achieves O(n log n) complexity, outperforming the baseline by 34% on the benchmark dataset."Education
Register: Formal, practice-oriented, stakeholder-aware
Voice: Active voice, first person for reflexive practice
Terminology: Pedagogical concepts, assessment language
Example: "The intervention improved student metacognitive awareness, as evidenced by a significant increase in self-regulation scores (t(45) = 3.21, p = .002, d = 0.72)."Medicine / Health
Register: Formal, evidence-hierarchy conscious, clinical precision
Voice: Passive for methods, active for findings
Terminology: Clinical terms, diagnostic criteria, statistical reporting
Example: "Patients receiving the intervention showed a 40% reduction in readmission rates (RR = 0.60, 95% CI [0.45, 0.80], p = .001)."Hedging and Strength Language
Hedging (for uncertain or qualified claims)
| Strength | Hedging Devices | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Weak | may, might, could, possibly | "This may suggest a correlation." |
| Moderate | suggests, indicates, appears | "The data suggest a positive trend." |
| Strong | demonstrates, establishes, confirms | "The evidence demonstrates a clear link." |
When to Hedge
- Results that need replication
- Causal claims from correlational data
- Generalizations from limited samples
- Interpretations with alternative explanations
When NOT to Hedge
- Reporting factual data: "The response rate was 78%." (not "appeared to be")
- Describing methodology: "We used thematic analysis." (not "we attempted to use")
- Well-established facts: "Earth orbits the Sun." (not "may orbit")
Transition Words and Phrases
Addition
moreover, furthermore, in addition, additionally, similarly, likewise
Contrast
however, nevertheless, in contrast, on the other hand, conversely, whereas
Cause/Effect
therefore, consequently, as a result, thus, hence, accordingly
Example
for example, for instance, specifically, in particular, such as, namely
Sequence
first, second, third, subsequently, finally, meanwhile
Summary
in summary, to conclude, overall, taken together, in short
Concession
although, despite, while, granted that, notwithstanding
Paragraph Construction
A Common Academic Paragraph Shape (TEEL, optional)
- Topic sentence — states the paragraph's main point
- Evidence — data, citations, examples that support the point
- Explanation — interpret the evidence, connect to argument
- Link — connect to the next paragraph or back to thesis
Example
[T] AI-assisted quality assurance has shown promise in improving evaluation consistency across institutions. [E] Smith (2024) found that institutions using AI tools reported a 23% reduction in inter-rater variance, while Chen and Wang (2023) documented improved agreement on scoring rubrics (κ = 0.82 vs. 0.64). [E] These findings suggest that algorithmic assistance can mitigate the subjective biases inherent in human evaluation, particularly when assessors have varying levels of experience. [L] However, the reliance on AI tools also raises concerns about the loss of contextual judgment, which the following section addresses.
Common Style Errors
Wordiness
| Wordy | Concise |
|---|---|
| in order to | to |
| due to the fact that | because |
| a large number of | many |
| at the present time | currently / now |
| it is important to note that | notably |
| in the event that | if |
| has the ability to | can |
| with regard to | regarding / about |
| in spite of the fact that | despite / although |
| conduct an investigation of | investigate |
Vague Language
| Vague | Precise |
|---|---|
| "many studies" | "several studies (e.g., Chen, 2023; Smith, 2024)" |
| "a significant impact" | "a 23% increase in retention rates" |
| "in recent years" | "since 2020" or "over the past five years" |
| "some researchers" | Name them with citations |
| "it is well known that" | Cite the source or remove |
Tense Usage
| Section | Tense | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Literature review (reporting findings) | Past | "Smith (2024) found that..." |
| Literature review (ongoing state) | Present | "The theory posits that..." |
| Methodology | Past | "Data were collected through..." |
| Results | Past | "The analysis revealed..." |
| Discussion (interpreting) | Present | "These findings suggest..." |
| Conclusion (implications) | Present/Future | "This has implications for... / Future research should..." |
Chinese Academic Writing (zh-TW) Conventions
Register
- Use written/formal language; avoid colloquial expressions
- Prefer active voice (Chinese rarely uses passive)
- Mainly short sentences; avoid overly long subordinate clauses
- Use "this study" (ben yan jiu) rather than "we" (wo men)
Common Academic Expressions
| English | Romanized Chinese |
|---|---|
| This study aims to | Ben Yan Jiu Zhi Zai |
| The findings indicate | Yan Jiu Jie Guo Xian Shi |
| It is worth noting | Zhi De Zhu Yi De Shi |
| In conclusion | Zong Shang Suo Shu |
| Based on the above analysis | Gen Ju Shang Shu Fen Xi |
| Further research is needed | Wei Lai Yan Jiu Ke Jin Yi Bu Tan Tao |
Avoiding Translationese
- Incorrect: "was found to be" (bei fa xian shi) → Correct: "Results show" (jie guo xian shi)
- Incorrect: "This is because" (zhe shi yin wei) → Correct: "The reason lies in" (yuan yin zai yu)
- Incorrect: "In the aspect of..." (zai...fang mian) → Correct: State directly
- Incorrect: "It is worth being pointed out that" (zhi de bei zhi chu de shi) → Correct: "It is worth noting that" (zhi de zhu yi de shi)